The relatively large and rapid increase in population in the Maltese Islands over the past decade has placed significant strain on the infrastructure of the country. These factors, together with the fact that issues with the public transport system have never been completely sorted, has led to an over-reliance on private cars as the main means of transport in most cases. Increased transport has been shown to increase stress and aggressive behaviour in drivers, amongst other possible negative consequences, leading to a negative effect on personal wellbeing. In order to assess the perceptions of the Maltese about the stress created by traffic, a cross-sectional study was conducted by means of telephone interviews with a stratified sample of 400 Maltese participants. A purposely designed questionnaire with twelve items scored on a seven-point Likert scale was used for this purpose. While more than four fifths of participants stated that they owned at least one car, and most agreed that traffic increases stress, both in the short and long term, less than one third of participants strongly agreed to preferring to use public transport rather than their private vehicle, even if public transport were more reliable. Females showed more anxiety than males with reference to the traffic situation and 18–29 year-olds showed the lowest level of agreement overall with the statements in the survey – a surprising result given this age group’s awareness of the negative effects of climate change on wellbeing.

stress, wellbeing, traffic

Argandar, G. D., Gil, F. T., & Berlanga, J. F. (2016). Measuring situations that stress Mexicans while driving. Transportation research part F: traffic psychology and behaviour, 37, 154-161.

Azzopardi, A., Clark, M., Bonnici, J, & Cuff, A. (2022). Survey on loneliness – 2022. Msida: Faculty of Social Wellbeing, University of Malta.

Barbayannis, G., Bandari, M., Zheng, X., Baquerizo, H., Pecor, K. W., & Ming, X. (2022). Academic stress and mental well-being in college students: correlations, affected groups, and COVID-19. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 886344.

Bigazzi, A., Ausri, F., Peddie, L., Fitch, D., & Puterman, E. (2022). Physiological markers of traffic-related stress during active travel. Transportation research part F: traffic psychology and behaviour, 84, 223-238.

Borg, N. (2023, Feb 15). Malta saw 32 new vehicles on the road every day last year. Malta: Times of Malta.

Clark, M., Azzopardi, A., & Bonnici, J. (2019). The prevalence of loneliness in Malta: A nationally representative study of the Maltese population. Msida: Faculty of Social Wellbeing, University of Malta.

Clark, M., Bonnici, J., & Azzopardi, A. (2021). Loneliness in Malta: Findings from the first National Prevalence Study. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 38(9), 2751-2771.

Corfitsen, M. T. (1993). Tiredness and visual reaction time among nighttime cab drivers: A roadside survey. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 25(6), 667-673.

Corfitsen, M. T. (1994). Tiredness and visual reaction time among young male nighttime drivers: a roadside survey. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 26(5), 617-624.

Dragoş, D., & Tănăsescu, M. D. (2010). The effect of stress on the defense systems. Journal of Medicine and Life, 3(1), 10-18.

Dula, C. S., & Ballard, M. E. (2003). Development and evaluation of a measure of dangerous, aggressive, negative emotional, and risky driving. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33(2), 263-282.

Hennessy, D. A., & Wiesenthal, D. L. (1999). Traffic congestion, driver stress, and driver aggression. Aggressive Behavior: Official Journal of the International Society for Research on Aggression, 25(6), 409-423.

Hockey, G. R. J., John Maule, A., Clough, P. J., & Bdzola, L. (2000). Effects of negative mood states on risk in everyday decision making. Cognition & Emotion, 14(6), 823-855.

Jafari, Z., Kolb, B. E., & Mohajerani, M. H. (2018). Chronic traffic noise stress accelerates brain impairment and cognitive decline in mice. Experimental neurology, 308, 1-12.

Krabbe, D., Ellbin, S., Nilsson, M., Jonsdottir, I. H., & Samuelsson, H. (2017). Executive function and attention in patients with stress-related exhaustion: perceived fatigue and effect of distraction. Stress, 20(4), 333-340.

Li, G., Lai, W., Sui, X., Li, X., Qu, X., Zhang, T., & Li, Y. (2020). Influence of traffic congestion on driver behavior in post-congestion driving. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 141, 105508.

Li, G., Li, S. E., Zou, R., Liao, Y., & Cheng, B. (2019). Detection of road traffic participants using cost-effective arrayed ultrasonic sensors in low-speed traffic situations. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, 132, 535-545.

Macrotrends (n.d.). Retrieved February 13, 2024, from https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/MLT/malta/population

Mekker, M. M., Remias, S. M., McNamara, M. L., & Bullock, D. M. (2020). Characterizing interstate crash rates based on traffic congestion using probe vehicle data. Unpublished article available at docs.lib.purdue.edu

Mullan, E. (2003). Do you think that your local area is a good place for young people to grow up? The effects of traffic and car parking on young people's views. Health & place, 9(4), 351-360.

Nesbit, S. M., Conger, J. C., & Conger, A. J. (2007). A quantitative review of the relationship between anger and aggressive driving. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 12(2), 156-176.

Öhrström, E. (1991). Psycho-social effects of traffic noise exposure. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 151(3), 513-517.

Ranđelović, D. J., Kostić, S. M., & Todorović, D. L. (2016). The effects of physical tiredness on some cognitive functions. Zbornik radova Filozofskog fakulteta u Prištini, (46-1), 341-357.

Raosoft Inc. (2004). Sample Size Calculator. Retrieved January 17, 2024, from http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html

Ringhand, M., & Vollrath, M. (2019). Effect of complex traffic situations on route choice behaviour and driver stress in residential areas. Transportation research part F: traffic psychology and behaviour, 60, 274-287.

Roidl, E., Frehse, B., & Höger, R. (2014). Emotional states of drivers and the impact on speed, acceleration and traffic violations—A simulator study. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 70, 282-292.

Schönfeld, P., Brailovskaia, J., Bieda, A., Zhang, X. C., & Margraf, J. (2016). The effects of daily stress on positive and negative mental health: Mediation through self-efficacy. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 16(1), 1-10.

Schroeder, P., Kostyniuk, L., & Mack, M. (2013). 2011 national survey of speeding attitudes and behaviors (No. DOT HS 811 865). United States. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Office of Behavioral Safety Research.

Sigurvinsdottir, R., Thorisdottir, I. E., & Gylfason, H. F. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on mental health: The role of locus on control and internet use. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(19), 6985.

Simon, F., & Corbett, C. (1996). Road traffic offending, stress, age, and accident history among male and female drivers. Ergonomics, 39(5), 757-780.

Statista (2023, September) Retrieved February 13, 2024, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/452243/european-countries-number-of-cars-per-1-000-inhabitants/

Stokols, D., Novaco, R. W., Stokols, J., & Campbell, J. (1978). Traffic congestion, type A behavior, and stress. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63(4), 467-481.

Walker, H. E., & Trick, L. M. (2018). Mind-wandering while driving: The impact of fatigue, task length, and sustained attention abilities. Transportation research part F: traffic psychology and behaviour, 59, 81-97.

Zheng, Z. (2012). Empirical analysis on relationship between traffic conditions and crash occurrences. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 43, 302-312.